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@ -60,16 +60,16 @@ Russell Sears and Eric Brewer\\
\subsection*{Abstract}
Although many systems provide transactionally consistent data management,
existing implementations are generally monolithic and tied to a higher-level DBMS, limiting the scope of their usefulness to a single application,
existing implementations are generally monolithic and tied to a higher-level DBMS, limiting the scope of their usefulness to a single application
or a specific type of problem. As a result, many systems are forced
to ``work around'' the data models provided by a transactional storage
layer. Manifestation of this problem include ``impedence mismatch''
layer. Manifestations of this problem include ``impedence mismatch''
in the database world and the limited number of data models provided
by existing libraries such as Berkeley DB. In this paper, we describe
a light-weight, easily extensible library, LLADD, that allows application
developers to develop scalable and transactional application-specific
data structures. We demonstrate that LLADD is simpler than prior systems
and is very flexible, while performing favorably in a number of
data structures. We demonstrate that LLADD is simpler than prior systems,
is very flexible and performs favorably in a number of
micro-benchmarks. We also describe, in simple and concrete terms,
the issues inherent in the design and implementation of robust, scalable
transactional data structures. In addition to the source code, we
@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ perform set operations.}
We also believe that LLADD is applicable in
the context of new, special-purpose database systems such as XML databases,
streaming databases, and extensible/semantic file systems~\cite{reiser, semantic}. These form a
fruitful area of current research,~\cite{stonebraker} but existing monolithic database systems tend to be a poor fit for these new areas.
fruitful area of current research,~\cite{newTypes} but existing monolithic database systems tend to be a poor fit for these new areas.
The basic approach of LLADD, taken from ARIES~\cite{aries}, is to build
\emph{transactional pages}, which enables recovery on a page-by-page
@ -128,15 +128,15 @@ provide a brief overview, and explain the details that are relevant
to developers that wish to extend LLADD.
By documenting the interface between ARIES and higher-level primitives
such as data structures, and by structuring LLADD to make this
such as data structures and by structuring LLADD to make this
interface explicit in both the library and its extensions, we hope to
make it easy to produce correct and efficient durable data
structures. In existing systems (and indeed, in earlier versions of
LLADD), the implementation of such structures is extremely
complicated, and subject to the introduction of incredibly subtle
errors that would only be evident during crash recovery or at other
inconvenient times. Thus there is great value is reusing these lower
layers once developed.
inconvenient times. Thus there is great value in reusing these lower
layers.
Finally, by approaching this problem by implementing a number of simple
modules that ``do one thing and do it well'', we believe that
@ -167,10 +167,10 @@ allow developers to replace this functionality with
application-specific modules.}
\end{figure}
Many applications make use of transactional storage, and each is
Many systems make use of transactional storage that is
designed for a specific application, or set of applications. LLADD
provides a flexible substrate that allows such applications to be
developed. The complexity of existing systems varies widely, as do
provides a flexible substrate that allows such systems to be
developed easily. The complexity of existing systems varies widely, as do
the applications for which these systems are designed.
On the database side of things, relational databases excel in areas
@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ outlive the software that uses them, and must be able to cope with
changes in business practices, system architectures, etc.~\cite{relational}
Object-oriented databases are more focused on facilitating the
development of complex applications that require reliable storage, and
development of complex applications that require reliable storage and
may take advantage of less-flexible, more efficient data models,
as they often only interact with a single application, or a handful of
variants of that application.~\cite{lamb}
@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ these situations is likely overkill, which may partially explain the
popularity of MySQL~\cite{mysql}, which allows some of these constraints to be
relaxed at the discretion of a developer or end user.
Still, there are many applications where MySQL is still too
Still, there are many applications where MySQL is too
inflexible. In order to serve these applications, a host of software
solutions have been devised. Some are extremely complex, such as
semantic file systems, where the file system understands the contents
@ -202,7 +202,7 @@ of the files that it contains, and is able to provide services such as
rapid search, or file-type specific operations such as thumbnailing,
automatic content updates, and so on. Others are simpler, such as
Berkeley~DB,~\cite{berkeleyDB, bdb} which provides transactional storage of data in unindexed
form, in indexed form using a hash table, or a tree. LRVM is a version
form, in indexed form using a hash table or tree. LRVM is a version
of malloc() that provides transacational memory, and is similar to an
object-oriented database, but is much lighter weight, and more
flexible~\cite{lrvm}.
@ -217,8 +217,8 @@ the transactional mechanism, such as forcing log entries to disk, will
be replaced with other durability schemes, such as in-memory
replication across many nodes, or multiplexing log entries across
multiple systems. This level of flexibility would be difficult to
retrofit into existing transactional applications, but is appropriate
in many environments.
retrofit into existing transactional applications, but is often appropriate
in the environments in which these applications are deployed.
We have only provided a small sampling of the many applications that
make use of transactional storage. Unfortunately, it is extremely
@ -233,28 +233,22 @@ Because of this, many applications that would benefit from
transactional storage, such as CVS and many implementations of IMAP,
either ignore the problem, leaving the burden of recovery to system
administrators or users, or implement ad-hoc solutions that employ
complex, application-specific consistency protocols in order to ensure
complex, application-specific storage protocols in order to ensure
the consistency of their data. This increases the complexity of such
applications, and often provides only a partial solution to the
transactional storage problem, resulting in erratic and unpredictable
application behavior.
In addition to describing such an
implementation of ARIES, a well-tested
In addition to describing a flexible implementation of ARIES, a well-tested
``industrial strength'' algorithm for transactional storage, this paper
outlines the most important interactions that we discovered (that
is, the ones that could not be encapsulated within our
is, the ones that could not or should not be encapsulated within our
implementation), and gives the reader a sense of how to use the
primitives the library provides.
%Many plausible lock managers, can do any one you want.
%too much implemented part of DB; need more 'flexible' substrate.
\section{ARIES from an Operation's Perspective}
Instead of providing a comprehensive discussion of ARIES, we will
@ -265,7 +259,7 @@ concurrency, recovery, and the possibility that any operation may
be rolled back at runtime.
We first sketch the constraints placed upon operation implementations,
and then describe the properties of our implementation of ARIES that
and then describe the properties of our implementation that
make these constraints necessary. Because comprehensive discussions of
write ahead logging protocols and ARIES are available elsewhere,~\cite{haerder, aries} we
only discuss those details relevant to the implementation of new
@ -274,12 +268,12 @@ operations in LLADD.
\subsection{Properties of an Operation\label{sub:OperationProperties}}
A LLADD operation consists of some code that performs some action on
the developer's behalf. These operations implement the high-level
A LLADD operation consists of some code that manipulates data that has
been stored in transactional pages. These operations implement the high-level
actions that are composed into transactions. They are implemented at
a relatively low level, and have full access to the ARIES algorithm.
We expect the majority of an application to reason in terms of the
interface provided by custom operations, allowing the the application,
Applications are implemented on top of the interfaces provided
by an application-specfic set of (potentially reusable) operations. This allows the the application,
the operation, and LLADD itself to be independently improved.
Since transactions may be aborted,
@ -295,7 +289,9 @@ When A was undone, what would become of the data that B inserted?%
of locking, or other concurrency mechanism that isolates transactions
from each other. LLADD only provides physical consistency; due to the variety of locking systems available, and their interaction with application workload,~\cite{multipleGenericLocking} we leave
it to the application to decide what sort of transaction isolation is
appropriate. For example, it is relatively easy to
appropriate.
For example, it is relatively easy to
build a strict two-phase locking lock manager~\cite{hierarcicalLocking} on top of LLADD, as
needed by a DBMS, or a simpler lock-per-folder approach that would
suffice for an IMAP server. Thus, data dependencies among
@ -310,11 +306,11 @@ all information necessary for undo and redo.
An important concept in ARIES is the ``log sequence number'' or LSN.
An LSN is essentially a virtual timestamp that goes on every page; it
marks the last log entry that is reflected on the page, which
marks the last log entry that is reflected on the page, and
implies that all previous log entries are also reflected. Given the
LSN, you can tell where to start playing back the log to bring a page
LSN, LLADD calculates where to start playing back the log to bring the page
up to date. The LSN goes on the page so that it is always written to
disk atomically with the data of the page.
disk atomically with the data on the page.
ARIES (and thus LLADD) allows pages to be {\em stolen}, i.e. written
back to disk while they still contain uncommitted data. It is
@ -326,7 +322,7 @@ always} contains some uncommitted data and thus could never be written
back to disk. To handle stolen pages, we log UNDO records that
we can use to undo the uncommitted changes in case we crash. LLADD
ensures that the UNDO record is durable in the log before the
page is written back to disk, and that the page LSN reflects this log entry.
page is written back to disk and that the page LSN reflects this log entry.
Similarly, we do not force pages out to disk every time a transaction
commits, as this limits performance. Instead, we log REDO records
@ -356,12 +352,16 @@ and the log.
Operation implementors follow the pattern in Figure \ref{cap:Tset},
and need only implement a wrapper function (``Tset()'' in the figure,
and a pair of redo and undo functions will be registered with LLADD.
and register a pair of redo and undo functions with LLADD.
The Tupdate function, which is built into LLADD, handles most of the
runtime complexity. LLADD also uses the undo and redo functions
during recovery, in the same way that they are used during normal
runtime complexity. LLADD uses the undo and redo functions
during recovery in the same way that they are used during normal
processing.
The complexity of the ARIES algorithm lies in determining
exactly when the undo and redo operations should be applied. LLADD
handles these details for the implementors of operations.
\subsubsection{The buffer manager}
@ -379,7 +379,7 @@ routines, in which case these routines must follow the protocol.
\subsubsection{Log entries and forward operation\\ (the Tupdate() function)\label{sub:Tupdate}}
In order to handle crashes correctly, and in order to the undo the
In order to handle crashes correctly, and in order to undo the
effects of aborted transactions, LLADD provides operation implementors
with a mechanism to log undo and redo information for their actions.
This takes the form of the log entry interface, which works as follows.
@ -422,7 +422,7 @@ proper latches.
\subsection{Recovery}
In this section, we present the details of crach recovery, user-defined logging, and atomic actions that commit even if their enclosing transaction aborts.
In this section, we present the details of crash recovery, user-defined logging, and atomic actions that commit even if their enclosing transaction aborts.
\subsubsection{ANALYSIS / REDO / UNDO}
@ -430,7 +430,7 @@ Recovery in ARIES consists of three stages, analysis, redo and undo.
The first, analysis, is
implemented by LLADD, but will not be discussed in this
paper. The second, redo, ensures that each redo entry in the log
will have been applied each page in the page file exactly once.
will have been applied to each page in the page file exactly once.
The third phase, undo, rolls back any transactions that were active
when the crash occured, as though the application manually aborted
them with the {}``abort'' function call.
@ -443,22 +443,22 @@ information for the version of each page present in the page file.%
\footnote{Although this discussion assumes that the entire log is present, the
ARIES algorithm supports log truncation, which allows us to discard
old portions of the log, bounding its size on disk.%
} However, we make no further assumptions regarding the order in which
pages were propogated to disk. Therefore, redo must assume that any
} Because we make no further assumptions regarding the order in which
pages were propogated to disk, redo must assume that any
data structures, lookup tables, etc. that span more than a single
page are in an inconsistent state. Therefore, as the redo phase re-applies
the information in the log to the page file, it must address all pages directly.
Therefore, the redo information for each operation in the log
This implies that the redo information for each operation in the log
must contain the physical address (page number) of the information
that it modifies, and the portion of the operation executed by a single
redo log entry must only rely upon the contents of the page that the log
redo log entry must only rely upon the contents of the page that the
entry refers to. Since we assume that pages are propagated to disk
atomically, the REDO phase may rely upon information contained within
a single page.
Once redo completes, we have applied some prefix of the run-time log that contains
complete entries for all committed transactions. Therefore, we know that the page file is in
Once redo completes, we have applied some prefix of the run-time log.
Therefore, we know that the page file is in
a physically consistent state, although it contains portions of the
results of uncomitted transactions. The final stage of recovery is
the undo phase, which simply aborts all uncomitted transactions. Since
@ -468,22 +468,23 @@ exactly as they would be during normal operation.
\subsubsection{Physical, Logical and Phisiological Logging.}
The above discussion avoided the use of some terminology that is common
in the database literature and which should be presented here. ``Physical
loggging'' is the practice of logging physical (byte-level) updates
The above discussion avoided the use of some common terminology
that should be presented here. {\em Physical logging }
is the practice of logging physical (byte-level) updates
and the physical (page number) addresses to which they are applied.
It is subtly different than ``physiological logging,'' which is
what LLADD recommends for its redo records. In physiological logging,
the physical address (page number) is stored, but the byte offset
{\em Physiological logging } is what LLADD recommends for its redo
records. The physical address (page number) is stored, but the byte offset
and the actual difference are stored implicitly in the parameters
of some function. When the parameters are applied to the function,
it will update the page in a way that preserves application semantics.
The common use for this is {\em slotted pages}, which use a level of indirection to allow records to be rearranged on the page; redo operations use the index as the parameter rather than the page offset. For example, data within
a single page can be re-arranged at runtime to produce contiguous
regions of free space. LLADD generalizes this model; for example, the parameters passed to the function may be significantly smaller than the physical change made to the page.~\cite{physiological}
of the redo or undo function. These parameters allow the function to
update the page in a way that preserves application semantics.
One common use for this is {\em slotted pages}, which use an on-page level of
indirection to allow records to be rearranged within the page; instead of using the page offset, redo
operations use a logical offset to locate the data. This allows data within
a single page to be re-arranged at runtime to produce contiguous
regions of free space. LLADD generalizes this model; for example, the parameters passed to the function may utilize application specific properties in order to be significantly smaller than the physical change made to the page.~\cite{physiological}
{}``Logical logging'' can only be used for undo entries in LLADD,
{\em Logical logging } can only be used for undo entries in LLADD,
and is identical to physiological logging, except that it stores a
logical address (the key of a hash table, for instance) instead of
a physical address. This allows the location of data in the page file
@ -529,11 +530,11 @@ that behaves in this way, while the linear hash table implementation
discussed in Section~\ref{sub:Linear-Hash-Table} is a scalable
hash table that meets these constraints.
[EAB: I still think there must be a way to log all of the redoes
before any of the actions take place, thus ensuring that you can redo
the whole thing if needed. Alternatively, we could pin a page until
the set completes, in which case we know that that all of the records
are in the log before any page is stolen.]
%[EAB: I still think there must be a way to log all of the redoes
%before any of the actions take place, thus ensuring that you can redo
%the whole thing if needed. Alternatively, we could pin a page until
%the set completes, in which case we know that that all of the records
%are in the log before any page is stolen.]
\subsection{Summary}
@ -564,7 +565,8 @@ such a tool could easily be applied to existing LLADD operations.
Note that the ARIES algorithm is extremely complex, and we have left
out most of the details needed to understand how ARIES works, or to
implement it correctly.\footnote{The original ARIES paper is around 70 pages, and the ARIES/IM paper~\cite{ariesim}, which covers index implementation is roughly the same length.} Yet, we believe we have covered everything that a programmer needs
implement it correctly.
Yet, we believe we have covered everything that a programmer needs
to know in order to implement new data structures using the
functionality that ARIES provides. This was possible due to the encapsulation
of the ARIES algorithm inside of LLADD, which is the feature that
@ -622,20 +624,16 @@ As LLADD has evolved, many of its sub-systems have been incrementally
improved, and we believe that the current set of modules is amenable
to the addition of new functionality. For instance, the logging module
interface encapsulates all of the details regarding its on disk format,
which would make it straightforward to implement more exotic logging
techniques such as using log shipping to maintain a ``warm replica''
for failover purposes, or the use of log replication to avoid physical
disk access at commit time. Similarly, the interface encodes the dependencies
between the logger and other subsystems, so, for instance, the requirements
that the buffer manager places on the logger would be obvious to someone
that attempted to alter the logging functionality.%
\footnote{The buffer manager must ensure that the logger has forced the appropriate
which allows for some of the exotic logging and replication techniques mentioned above.
Similarly, the interface encodes the dependencies
between the logger and other subsystems.%
\footnote{For example, the buffer manager must ensure that the logger has forced the appropriate
log entries to disk before writing a dirty page to disk. Otherwise,
it would be impossible to undo the changes that had been made to the
page.%
}
The buffer manager itself is another potential area for extension.
The buffer manager is another potential area for extension.
Because the interface between the buffer manager and LLADD is simple,
we would like to support transactional access to resources beyond
simple page files. Some examples include transactional updates of
@ -644,9 +642,9 @@ or network requests, or even leveraging some of the advances being
made in the Linux and other modern OS kernels. For example,
ReiserFS recently added support for atomic file-system operations.
This could be used to provide variable-sized pages
to LLADD. Combining these ideas should make it easy to
implement some interesting applications, and to improve existing
systems such as CVS, IMAP, and a host of ``simple'' desktop applications.
to LLADD. We revisit these ideas when we discuss existing systems
such as CVS and IMAP, although they are applicible in many other
circumstances.
From the testing point of view, the advantage of LLADD's division
into subsystems with simple interfaces is obvious. We are able to
@ -657,15 +655,12 @@ adding a ``simulate crash'' operation to a few of the key components,
we can simulate application level crashes by clearing LLADD's internal
state, re-initializing the library and verifying that recovery was
successful. These tests currently cover approximately
90\%\footnote{generated using ``gcov'', which is part of gcc, and ``lcov,'' which interprets gcov's output.}
of the code. We have not yet developed a mechanism that will allow us to
accurately model hardware failures, which is an area where futher
work is needed. However, the basis for this work will be the development
of test harnesses that verify operation behavior in exceptional circumstances.
90\%\footnote{generated using ``gcov'', and ``lcov,''}
of the code. We have not yet developed a mechanism that models hardware failures, but plan to develop a test harness that verifies operation behavior in exceptional circumstances.
LLADD's performance requirements vary wildly depending on the workload
with which it is presented. Its performance on a large number of small,
sequential transactions will always be limited by the amount time
sequential transactions will always be limited by the amount of time
required to flush a page to disk. To some extent, compact logical
and physiological log entries improve this situation. On the other
hand, long running transactions only rarely force-write to disk and
@ -673,29 +668,26 @@ become CPU bound. Standard profiling techniques of the overall library's
performance and microbenchmarks of crucial modules handle such situations
nicely.
A more interesting set of performance requirements are imposed by
multithreaded workloads. Each module of LLADD is reentrant, and a
Each module of LLADD is reentrant, and a
C preprocessor directive allows the entire library to be instrumented
in order to profile latching behavior, which is useful both for perfomance
tuning and for debugging. A thread that is not involved in
in order to profile latching behavior, which aids in perfomance
tuning and debugging. A thread that is not involved in
an I/O request never needs to wait for a latch held by a thread that
is waiting for I/O.%
\footnote{Strictly speaking, this statement is only true for LLADD's core.
However, there are variants of most popular data structures that allow
us to preserve these invariants. LLADD can correctly support operations
whether or not they have these properties.%
us to preserve these invariants.%
}
There are a number of performance optimizations that are specific
to multithreaded operations that we do not perform. The most glaring
omission is log bundling; if multiple transactions commit at once,
LLADD must force the log to disk one time per transaction. This problem
is not fundamental, but simply has not made it into the current code
base. Similarly, since page eviction requires a force-write if the
LLADD must still force the log to disk once per transaction. This problem
is not fundamental, but simply has not been addressed by current code
base. Similarly, as page eviction requires a force-write if the
full ARIES recovery algorithm is in use, we could implement a thread
that asynchronously maintained a set of free buffer pages. We plan to
implement such optimizations, but they are not reflected
in this paper's performance figures.
implement such optimizations in the future.
\section{Sample Operations}
@ -704,7 +696,12 @@ In order to validate LLADD's architecture, and to show that it simplifies
the creation of efficient data structures, we have have implemented
a number of simple extensions. In this section, we describe their
design, and provide some concrete examples of our experiences extending
LLADD.
LLADD. We would like to emphasize that this discussion reflects a
``worst case'' scenario; if LLADD extensions apprpriate for an application
already exist, the process detailed in this section is unnecessary. If an
application does not require concurrent, multithreaded applications, then
physical logging can be used, allowing for the extremly simple
implementation of new operations.
\subsection{Linear Hash Table\label{sub:Linear-Hash-Table}}
@ -728,9 +725,8 @@ hash table without introducing long pauses while we reorganize the
hash table~\cite{lht}. We can handle overflow using standard techniques;
LLADD's linear hash table uses linked lists of overflow buckets.
For this scheme to work, we must be able to address a portion of the
page file as though it were an expandable array. We have implemented
this functionality as a separate module, but will not discuss it here, although it does define its own operations using the operation API.
The bucket list must be addressible as though it was an expandable array. We have implemented
this functionality as a separate module reusable by applications, but will not discuss it here.
For the purposes of comparison, we provide two linear hash implementations.
The first is straightforward, and is layered on top of LLADD's standard
@ -743,7 +739,7 @@ the physical-undo implementation of the linear hash table cannot support
concurrent transactions, while threads utilizing the logical-undo
implementation never hold locks on more than two buckets.%
\footnote{However, only one thread may expand the hashtable at once. In order to amortize the overhead of initiating an expansion, and to allow concurrent insertions, the hash table is expanded in increments of a few thousand buckets.}
We see some performance improvement due to logical logging in Section~\ref{eval}.
We see some performance improvement due to logical logging in Section~\ref{sec:eval}.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
@ -755,28 +751,27 @@ We see some performance improvement due to logical logging in Section~\ref{eval}
\end{figure}
Because another module provides the resizable arrays needed for the
bucket list, the complexity of the linear hash algorithm is in two
areas. The first, linked list management, is straightforward in the
From our point of view, the linked list management portion of the hash
table algorithm is particularly iteresting. It is straightforward in the
physical case, but must be performed in a specific order in the logical
case. See Figure \ref{cap:Linear-Hash-Table} for a sequence of steps
that safely implement the necessary linked list operations. Note that
in the first two cases, the portion of the linked list that is visible
from LLADD's point of view is always consistent. This is important
from LLADD's point of view is always logically consistent. This is important
for crash recovery; it is possible that LLADD will crash before the
entire sequence of operations has been completed. The logging protocol
guarantees that some prefix of the log will be available. Therefore,
as long as the run-time version of the hash table is always consistent,
we may be certain that the logical consistency of the linked list is maintained
at all steps. Here, the challenge comes from the fact that the buffer
manager only provides atomic updates of single pages; in practice,
a linked list may span pages.
because the run-time version of the hash table is always consistent,
we know that the version of the hash table produced by the REDO phase
of recovery will also be consistent. Note that we have to worry about ordering because the buffer
manager only provides atomic updates of single pages, but our linked list may span pages.
The last case, where buckets are split as the bucket list is expanded,
The third case, where buckets are split as the bucket list is expanded,
is a bit more complicated. We must maintain consistency between two
linked lists, and a page at the begining of the hash table that contains
the last bucket that we successfully split. Here, we the undo
entry to ensure proper crash recovery, not by undoing the split, but by actually redoing it; this is a perfectly valid ``undo'' strategy for some operations.
the last bucket that we successfully split. Here, we use the undo
entry to ensure proper crash recovery, not by undoing the split, but
by actually redoing it; this is a perfectly valid ``undo'' strategy for some operations.
Our bucket split algorithm
is idempotent, so it may be applied an arbitrary number of times to
a given bucket with no ill-effects. Also note that in this case
@ -791,11 +786,7 @@ the linked list protocols listed above. Finally, we write a redo-only
entry that updates the hash table's metadata.%
\footnote{Had we been using nested top actions, we would not need the special
undo entry, but we would need to store {\em physical} undo information for
each of the modifications made to the bucket, since any subset of the pages may have been stolen. This method does have
the disadvantage of producing a few redo-only entries during recovery,
but the number of such entries is
bounded by the number of entries that would be produced during normal
operation.%
each of the modifications made to the bucket, since any subset of the pages may have been stolen.%
}
We allow pointer aliasing at this step so that a given key can be
@ -806,17 +797,16 @@ metadata appropriately, and the undo record becomes a no-op. If
we crash in the middle of the bucket split, we know that the current
transaction did not commit, and that recovery will execute the undo
record. It will see that the bucket split is still pending and finish
splitting the bucket appropriately. Since the bucket split is idempotent,
and we've arranged for it to behave correctly regardless of the point
at which it was interrupted, the hash table is correctly restored.
splitting the bucket. Therefore, the hash table is correctly restored.
Note that there is a point during the undo phase where the bucket
is in an inconsistent physical state, although normally the redo phase
is able to bring the database to a fully consistent physical state.
We handle this by obtaining a runtime lock on the bucket during normal
operation. This runtime lock blocks any attempt to write log entries
that alter a bucket that is being split, so we know that no other
logical operations will attempt to access an inconsistent bucket.
is in an inconsistent physical state. Normally the redo phase
brings the page file to a fully consistent physical state.
We handle this by obtaining a lock on the bucket during normal
operation. This blocks any attempt to write log entries
that alter a bucket while it is being split. Therefore, the log
cannot contain any entries that will accidentally attempt to
access an inconsistent bucket.
Since the second implementation of the linear hash table uses logical
undo, we are able to allow concurrent updates to different portions
@ -834,7 +824,7 @@ or the network could fail during operation, but we assume that such
failures are temporary. Two-phase commit designates a single computer
as the coordinator of a given transaction. This computer contacts
the other systems participating in the transaction, and asks them
to prepare to commit the transaction. If a subordinate system sees
to prepare to commit. If a subordinate system sees
that an error has occurred, or the transaction should be aborted for
some other reason, then it informs the coordinator. Otherwise, it
enters the \emph{prepared} state, and tells the coordinator that it
@ -850,20 +840,20 @@ of writing a special log entry that informs the undo portion of the
recovery phase that it should stop rolling back the current transaction
and instead add it to the list of active transactions.%
\footnote{Also, any locks that the transaction obtained should be restored,
which is outside of the scope of LLADD, although this functionality
could be added relatively easily if a lock manager were implemented
on top of LLADD.%
which is outside of the scope of LLADD, although a LLADD operation could
easily implement this functionality on behalf of an external lock manager.%
} Due to LLADD's extendible logging system, and the simplicity
of its recovery code, it took an afternoon to add a prepare operation
to LLADD, allowing it to support applications that require two-phase commit.
A preliminary implementation of a cluster hash table that employs two-phase
of its recovery code, it took an afternoon for a programmer to become familiar with LLADD's
architecture and add the prepare operation. This implementation of prepare allows
LLADD to support applications that require two-phase commit. A preliminary
implementation of a cluster hash table that employs two-phase
commit is included in LLADD's CVS repository.
\subsection{Other Applications}
Previously, we mentioned a few programs that we think would benefit
Previously, we mentioned a few systems that we think would benefit
from LLADD. Here we sketch the process of implementing such
applictions. LRVM implements a transactional version of malloc() \cite{lrvm}. It
applications. LRVM implements a transactional version of malloc() \cite{lrvm}. It
employs the operating system's virtual memory system to generate page
faults if the application accesses a portion of memory that have not
been swapped in. These page faults are intercepted and processed by a
@ -874,8 +864,8 @@ its transactions. LLADD provides such a layer and the necessary
calls, reducing the LRVM implementation to an implementation of the
page fault handling code. The performance of the transactional
storage system is crucial for this sort of application, and the
variable length, keyed access, and higher levels of abstractions
provided by existing libraries would be overkill. LLADD could easily
variable length, keyed access, and higher levels of abstraction
provided by existing libraries impose a severe performance penalty. LLADD could easily
be extended so that it employs an appropriate on-disk structure that
provides efficient, offset based access to aligned, fixed length
blocks of data. Furthermore, LRVM requires a set\_range() operation
@ -905,19 +895,20 @@ that LLADD's page file would provide improved performance over the
file system, at the expense of the transparency
of file-system based storage mechanisms.
[cite j2ee in next paragraph]
%[cite j2ee in next paragraph]
Another area of interest is in transactional serialization mechanisms
for programming languages. Existing solutions are often complex, or
are layered on top of a relational database, or other system that uses
a data format that is different than the representation the
programming language uses. The wide variety of persistance mechanisms
programming language uses. J2EE implementations and the wide variety of
other persistance mechanisms
available for Java provide a nice survey of the potential design
choices and tradeoffs. Since LLADD can easily be adapted to an
application's desired data format, we believe that it is a good match
for such persistance mechanisms.
\section{Performance}
\section{\label{sec:eval} Performance}
We hope that the preceeding sections have given the reader an idea
of the usefulness and extensibility of the LLADD library. In this
@ -929,11 +920,10 @@ this test, we chose fixed-length (key, value) pairs of integers. For
simplicity, our hashtable implementations currently only support fixed-length
keys and values, so this this test puts us at a significant advantage.
It also provides an example of the type of workload that LLADD handles
well, since LLADD is specifically designed to support application
specific transactional data structures. For comparison, we ran
well; LLADD is designed to support application
specific transactional data structures. For comparison, we also ran
``Record Number'' trials, named after the Berkeley DB access method.
In this case, the two programs essentially stored the data in a large
array on disk. This test provides a measurement of the speed of the
In this case, data is essentially stored in a large on-disk array. This test provides a measurement of the speed of the
lowest level primitive supported by Berkeley DB, and the corresponding LLADD extension.
%
@ -1024,8 +1014,7 @@ taken for various numbers of threads to perform a total of 500,000
read operations. The performance of LLADD in this figure
is essentially flat, showing only a negligable slowdown up to 250
threads. (Our test system prevented us from spawning more than 250
simultaneous threads, and we suspect that the ``true'' limit of
LLADD's scalability is much higher than 250 threads. This test was
simultaneous threads, and we suspect that LLADD would easily scale to more than 250 threads. This test was
performed on a uniprocessor machine, so we did not expect to see a
significant speedup when we moved from a single thread to multiple
threads.
@ -1035,7 +1024,7 @@ a degradation in performance instead of the expected speed up.
The problem seems to be the additional overhead incurred by
multi-threaded applications running on SMP machines under Linux 2.6,
as the single thread test spent a small amount of time in the Linux
kernel, while even the two thread version of the test spent a
kernel, while even the two-thread version of the test spent a
significant time in kernel code. We suspect that the large number of
briefly-held latches that LLADD acquires caused this problem. We plan
to investigate this problem further, adopting LLADD to a more advanced
@ -1078,20 +1067,7 @@ Generally, the semantics of undo and redo operations provided by the
transactional page layer and its associated data structures determine
the level of concurrency that is possible. Since prior systems provide
a monolithic set of primitives to their users, these systems typically had complex interactions among the lock manager, on-disk formats and the transactional
page layer. Finally, at recovery time it is often desirable to reacquire
locks on behalf of a transaction. Without extensible logging and without
modifying the recovery code, it is impossible to ensure that such
locks are correctly restored. By providing extensible logging, data-structures,
and undo/redo semantics, LLADD removes these reasons for coupling
the lock manager and the rest of the storage mechanisms. The flexiblity
offered by splitting the lock manager and the ARIES algorithm into
independent sub-systems, and allowing users to independently extend
either module seems to outweigh the extra complexity that will be
added to LLADD's interface. In particular, most difficulties related
to locking seem to be data-structure dependent, suggesting that, like
page layout or the semantics of various types of log entires, they
are largely orthogonal to the atomicity and durability algorithms
implemented by LLADD.
page layer. Due to the clean interfaces that LLADD provides between on-disk formats and its transactional page layer, and because of its extensible log entries, the implementation of general purpose, modular lock managers on top of LLADD seems to be straightforward. We plan to investigate this in the future, as it would provide significant opportunities for code reuse, and for the implementation of extremely flexible transactional systems.
\section{Conclusion}
@ -1103,12 +1079,12 @@ storage. By summarizing and documenting the interactions between
these customizations and the storage system, we make it easy to
implement such customizations.
Current applications generally must choose between high-level, general-purpose libraries
that impose severe performance penalties, and
ad-hoc ``from scratch'' atomicity and durability mechanisms. By
bridging this gap, we hope to make it easier to implement a class of
applications and algorithms whose implementations are generally
complex, or fail to provide reliable storage to their users.
Current applications generally must choose between high-level,
general-purpose libraries that impose severe performance penalties,
and ad-hoc ``from scratch'' atomicity and durability mechanisms. By
bridging this gap, allowing applications to make use of high-level,
efficient, and special-purpose transactional storage, we hope to make
it easy to implement efficient systems that make use of specialized, reliable storage mechanisms. Today, such applications typically have to choose between efficiency, reliable storage, and ease of development. As a result such applications are often complext, or fail to meet their users requirements.
By releasing LLADD to the community, we hope that we will be able to
provide a toolkit that aids in the development of real-world
@ -1138,45 +1114,45 @@ LLADD is free software, available at:
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